Director, Environmental Studies
Professor of English

Study Questions

Daniel G. Payne

Voices in the Wilderness: American Nature Writing and Environmental Politics

Hanover , N.H. : University Press of New England , 1996.

Chapter 2: Emerson, Thoreau, and Environmental Reform

1. What are the “indicators of environmental awareness” Payne applies in his evaluation of Emerson and Thoreau – and others in the book? (31) Do you think these are appropriate? What limitations does this approach have? What assumptions are at work?

2. What are the ambivalences in Emerson’s view of nature? In what ways do his writings present a strong sense of the value of nature? In what ways do his writing limit or undercut that sense of value?

3. What are the reasons Payne gives for Emerson never taking a “reformist position regarding environmental politics?” (33)

4. What is Payne’s overall evaluation of the significance of Emerson for environmental reform? (35-36)

5. What does Payne (citing other scholars) say about Thoreau’s consistency and development of his ideas? (36-37)

6. How were Thoreau’s ideas related to Emerson’s? (37)

7. What was Thoreau’s “spiritual ecology?” How did his ideas and values relate to Christianity?

8. What are Thoreau’s view toward anthropocentrism and human improvements of nature? (41-43)

9. What is Thoreau’s view of wildness? Why does he value wild nature? What does Cecelia Tichi mean when she says Thoreau’s “wildness is held in a domestic embrace”? How does Payne critique her view? What occurred in Thoreau’s encounter with the mountain wilderness of Ktaadn? (42-44)

10. What does Payne say characterizes Thoreau’s growing biocentrism? (45-46)

11. What is Payne’s assessment of Thoreau’s environmental awareness and political activity for environmental reform? (46, 48-50)

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